Performance Course Glossary

Analytical processing

A type of decision making used for complex and unfamiliar problems. Information is gathered and evaluated, options are considered, and a conscious decision on what action to take is made.

Anchoring bias

When evaluating a situation, we can place excessive weight on a judgement made or piece of information encountered early in the evaluation process. This initial piece of information influences our subsequent decision making. In some cases the judgement or piece of information may be inaccurate, leading to an erroneous decision or incorrect course of action.  Often, the information anchored upon has been supplied by another person who was involved with the situation prior to us taking responsibility. 

Ascertainment bias

This occurs when we associate what we are encountering with previous similar experiences, especially recent ones. We, possibly erroneously, judge that the problem is the same as the previous one which superficially appears the same. 

Automatic processing

Most judgements our brains make are based on experience of similar situations we have encountered in the past. We recognise familiar patterns of incoming information and react to them in an intuitive manner. This decision-making method is known as intuitive processing. Automatic processing is fast and consumes very little of our cognitive capacity. In the majority of situations, this method of processing brings us to accurate decisions and the correct course of action. For familiar, routine, low risk tasks, automatic processing is an ideal method of thinking.

Choking & freezing

Choking (aka freezing) occurs as a result of an extreme stress response. We are rendered unable to make decisions or carry out physical tasks. It is an evolved response to a perception of overwhelming threat.

Closed loop communication

Information is passed from an informant to a recipient. The recipient then reads the information back to the informant. The informant then confirms that the information has been received accurately. 

Cognitive appraisal

Our cognitive appraisal is how we perceive the magnitude and complexity of a situation, and our ability to manage it. We also evaluate how the situation could potentially affect our well-being. Our appraisal of a situation can be divided into primary and secondary appraisal. 

During our primary appraisal we consider whether we have anything at stake relating to the encounter. This could be a potential benefit, or it could result in physical, emotional or reputational harm to us. In our secondary appraisal we evaluate what resources and abilities we have to deal with the situation i.e. how equipped are we to cope successfully with the problem?

A key part of owning the pressure is having an understanding of how our brains appraise and perceive situations and our capability for dealing with it. Assessing the situation as a difficult but achievable challenge helps to motivate us and improve our performance. We can however make a judgement that the situation is insurmountable or even a potential threat to our wellbeing.

Cognitive biases

Ideally, we would accurately and rationally interpret all of the information available to us when making decisions and judgements. Unfortunately, however, our minds can subconsciously misinterpret or even ignore some of the information presented to us. Cognitive biases result from inaccurate pattern recognition and our brains trying to simplify the information we are receiving to speed up decision making.  

Cognitive dissonance

Dissonance occurs when a person has a belief or a perception of a situation that is challenged by new, contradictory information. Individuals strive to reconcile their existing belief with the new evidence. 

Cognitive dissonance is often observed when reviewing episodes of suboptimal performance. Those involved may try to justify their actions in spite of evidence suggesting that they should have done things differently. 

Cognitive offloading

The practice of minimising the cognitive burden on an individual or team. This can be achieved by training, use of cognitive aids and delegation. 

Cognitive overload

Cognitive overload occurs when the cognitive demands on us exceed our cognitive capacity. This is related to us exceeding the capacity of our working memory.

Cognitive reframing

A method of recalibrating our appraisal of a situation. The aim is to achieve an accurate and rational judgement of the circumstances facing us. 

Confirmation bias

Confirmation bias occurs when we place emphasis on information which supports our original judgement and less emphasis on evidence which contradicts that judgement. We subconsciously discount additional information if it doesn’t fit with our existing assessment. 

Cross check

A second person verifies the accuracy of our judgement, decision or completion of a task. 

Deliberate practice

Training to achieve mastery of a skill by splitting it into small parts. The skill is repeatedly practiced, each time with the aim of improving performance of one small part of the task. Requires real time expert review and coaching. 

Disconfirming question

Disconfirming questions are used as a technique to reduce the effects of cognitive biases. We actively challenge our judgement and question if all of the information available is consistent with our decision. 

Disengagement

When we experience situations with insufficient levels of pressure we have minimal stimuli to motivate us to perform to a high standard. This low arousal, low performance state is known as disengagement. 

Dunning-Kruger effect

Less inexperienced individuals tend to overestimate their abilities. Inexperienced individuals have misplaced confidence in their knowledge, judgement and skills.  

Episodic memory

A type of explicit memory. Memories of specific events which have happened in the past. 

Explicit memory

Explicit memory is a type of long term memory. It is also known as declarative memory. Recalling information from one’s explicit memory is a conscious and intentional action. There are two types of explicit memory: episodic and semantic. 

Flash team

In emergency situations individuals from different professional groups, and who may not be previously known to each other, come together to form a team. This team must work together with effective communication, cooperative behaviour and in a coordinated manner. 

Flat hierarchy

 A flat hierarchy in a team or organisation exists when, although there is an identified leader, each member of the team has autonomy and feels empowered to speak up in order to contribute to decision making.

Flow

A state of optimal performance with the optimal amount of pressure. This results in motivation, arousal and focussed attention. We perceive the situation as a challenge: it is difficult, but we have confidence that we have the knowledge, skills and resources required to achieve a safe and favourable outcome. 

Focussed attention

Our ability to concentrate our cognitive abilities on a particular task or decision.

Framing effect

The manner in which information is communicated to us influences our decision making. For example, identical information can be communicated with either a negative or a positive “spin”.

Frazzle

 A state of suboptimal performance which occurs when we experience excessive levels of pressure. 

Graded assertiveness

A communication technique for communicating concern about another person’s, often more senior, judgement or actions. The technique involves sequentially escalating the force of what is communicated.  

One acronym for graded assertiveness is “CUSS”:

·      Concern – “I’m concerned that…”

·      Unsure – “I’m unsure that this is the correct….”

·      Safety – “I don’t think what we are doing is safe…”

·      Stop – “Please stop what you are doing”

Immersive simulation 

Simulation which looks and feels as close to real life as possible. Attempts to make the experience, environment, stimuli and decision making credible and realistic. If training sessions appear unrealistic it is difficult to engage the minds and enthusiasm of learners.

Implicit memory

Implicit memory is a type of long term memory. It allows us to subconsciously recall information we have previously learned. 

Just culture

 A just culture within an organisation exists when individuals making errors or omissions due to systems failures, inexperience or challenging circumstances are not punished. Wilful errors and competence levels less than the minimum expected are however not acceptable. Organisations with just cultures have higher rates of significant event reporting and more effective reflective practice. 

Long term memory

Used for storage of information for a prolonged period. There are two main types of long term memory: explicit and implicit.

Marginal gains

The process of analysing each part of a system and identifying where improvements, even very small ones, can be made. The cumulative effect is an overall significant enhancement in performance. 

Mental rehearsal

Repeatedly thinking through and imagining the stages and motor actions of predictable tasks. The imagery should be of us performing the task with excellence and confidence.

Metacognition

How our brains process information and make judgements and decisions. Thinking about thinking. Awareness of what cognitive processes are appropriate for different situations. 

Order effect & Serial position effect

When receiving information we have a tendency to focus and put weight on the things that are at the start of the communication, and at the end. We pay less attention to information in the middle. An importanty consideration when structuring communication of important information.

Overlearning

Repeatedly practicing a skill until mastery is achieved, and then practicing more. This leads to a longer lasting ability to maintain the skill. It also helps to achieve automaticity i.e. the ability to carry out the skill without conscious thought.

Priming effect

Our perception and judgement of a situation are influenced by a preceding stimulus or experience. 

Procedural memory

This is a type of implicit memory. Procedural memory allows us to carry out tasks and motor skills we have previously practiced without the need for conscious thought. Procedural memory is used in automatic processing. Procedural memory is carried out by the cerebellum and the basal ganglia. 

Psychological safety

In psychologically safe teams, individuals feel respected and accepted. They also feel that their performance is respected. They understand that speaking up about errors is more likely to have a positive impact on the team than a negative impact on them as an individual.

Rally point

A pause in a high pressure situation where the team communicate their personal mental models and plans of action. The aim is to achieve a shared, accurate mental model and a prioritised list of tasks. 

SBAR

This is a structure for verbal and written communication. Used in situations such as team briefings, emergencies or when handing over responsibility to another team.

·      Situation – A summary of the situation currently

·      Background – How we’ve arrived at this situation and any useful supporting information

·      Assessment – What I believe to be happening

·      Recommendations – What I think needs to be done.

Semantic memory

A type of explicit memory. Knowledge of factual information which has been previously learned. 

Shared mental model

The team has the same perception of the challenges being faced and the actions required. A common understanding of the situation. 

Situational awareness

An understanding of what is happening around us. 

Sterile cockpit

 A term originating in the aviation industry. During complex and high stakes procedures all non-essential communications and actions are stopped. This reduces the cognitive load on the main operator and stops the negative effects of interruptions and distractions. 

Stress inoculation 

Stress inoculation is achieved in three stages. Initially participants learn about stress and its effects on how we think, feel and behave. They then learn and practice coping mechanisms to mitigate the effects of excessive pressure. Finally, in simulation under pressure, they practice the techniques in a controlled environment. This is all done under the supervision of an experienced simulation coach. With repeated simulation scenarios, the pressure and cognitive load are gradually increased. Over time, learners come to recognise and react to the early stages of stress and cognitive overload in both themselves and their colleagues. 

Stress response

Also known as the fight or flight response. Our sympathetic nervous system is activated, causing the release of two stress hormones: cortisol and adrenaline. These cause physiological changes throughout our body. The changes prepare us for a physical confrontation or to extricate ourselves from the situation. Perceptions of threat trigger a fight or flight response.

Our hearts start to beat faster in order to supply our muscles with sufficient blood and oxygen for sudden movements and prolonged activity i.e. violence or running. Our pupils widen. Our muscles tense. We start to sweat. At extremes, we have a desire to empty our bladder and bowels to reduce weight while fleeing. Our peripheral vision is compromised, as is our ability to hear. 

Task fixation

Task fixation occurs when an individual or team fully focusses all of their attention on a task or on a decision. This reduces their overall situational awareness. 

Working memory

This is the type of memory we use to retain information for a temporary period while making a decision or carrying out a task. It has a limited capacity.

Working memory involves the prefrontal cortex and parietal areas of the brain. 

Stress impairs the function of our working memory.